The Integration of African-American in Competitive Basketball Essay Example for Free

The Integration of African-American in Competitive Basketball Essay Basketball was invented by the Canadian-American physician, educator, and clergyman James Naismith in December 1891, who was then an instructor at the Young Men’s Christian Association Training School in Springfield, Massachusetts. The game of basketball being played by both men and women rapidly spread around America and Canada, as well as in other parts of the world. Because of its attractiveness as an informal outdoor game, servicemen of the United States all through the World War II played and introduced the sport in numerous countries. Between 1893 and 1895, many colleges in the United States adopted the game, and for the first time in 1934, college games were played in New York City’s Madison Square Garden, therefore attracting much interest in college basketball. By the 1950s, basketball had developed into a major college sport, leading the way for the escalation of interest in and, consequently, development of professional basketball in 1898 by the National Basketball League. By 1960s, professional teams from every State played before millions of crowds annually. Since the 1980s the National Basketball Association, successor of the NBL, has become one of the most well-liked sports organizations in the world, relatively on account of the marketability of several remarkable star players, most notably the African-American descents like Michael Jordan, Kobe Bryant and Lebron James. Discrimination of African-American in College Basketball Leagues During the late 19th and early 20th centuries, competitive sports were greatly recognized in the United States. Although basketball, unlike in baseball, hockey, and football, was an urban sport played by a diverse population on every level, African-American players were excluded (Parks, Quarterman, Thibault, 2007, p. 99). Because of the popularity of basketball, the American Basketball Association was organized in 1925 and as expected no African-Americans were allowed to join. The case was also true for the Basketball Association of America, which was organized in 1946. Up until 1950, universities and colleges, mainly in the South side of the United States, were prohibited to have a team sport composed of black and white players in view of the Jim Crow Laws. Nevertheless, a number of predominant white universities in the North side of the country did utilize African-Americans on their basketball teams. Some examples were William King of Long Island University, Lawrence Bleach of Detroit University, and Ben Franklin and Bob Yancy of Boston University. Jim Crow Laws Throughout the 1870s and 1880s, in the South side of the United States, it was not unusual for whites and blacks to make use of the same public facilities. However, Supreme Court decisions started to strip away the accomplishments of the Reconstruction movement. Following the American Civil War, most States in South passed state and local anti-African legislation, which were eventually recognized as Jim Crow laws. This included laws that discriminated against African-Americans with regards to public schools attendance and the use of facilities such as public baths, cinemas, hotels, theaters and restaurants. Jim Crow was more than a series of unyielding anti-Black laws, as it was at the time considered a lifestyle. Eventually, however, in 1954 in Brown v. Board of Education case, the Supreme Court of the United States declared State-sponsored school segregation as unconstitutional, and the remaining Jim Crow laws were generally overruled by the Voting Rights Act of 1965 and the Civil Rights Act of 1964 (Miller, Wiggins, 2004, p. 236). Integration of African-Americans in Professional Basketball Prior to the integration of any of the major sport leagues, the National Basketball League already welcomed African-American players that, as a result, forever changed the games. Most followers of the sport may not even be aware of the African-American players and the National Basketball League’s ground-breaking undertakings given that the integration in the NBL and professional basketball in general came with much less elaboration and fewer setbacks than it did in other major sports. In 1942, the National Basketball League, a forerunner to the National Basketball Association, became the first major professional basketball league of the contemporary period to integrate (Parks, Quarterman, Thibault, 2007, p. 99). Integration of African-American in basketball came 16 years before Willie O’Ree skated for the National Hockey League’s Boston Bruins, five years before Jackie Robinson broke the color barrier in Major League Baseball, and four years before Kenny Washington played football for the Los Angeles Rams of the National Football League (Miller, Wiggins, 2004, p. 235). Unlike professional hockey, football, and baseball, basketball did not integrate a single black player, seeing that during the 1942-1943 season, the National Basketball League integrated 10 African-American players for the two of the league’s teams, namely the Chicago Studebakers and the Toledo Jim White Chevrolets. Bill Jones, a college star-player at the University of Toledo, and one of the last living African-American players from that period, played four games for the Chevrolets. Jones, together with his fellow African-American teammates, Casey Jones, Al Price, and Shanty Barnett, made an immediate impression on the league, introducing some much-needed athleticism and speed to the game. The effect of African-American players to the game, by virtue of their skill, was instantly felt by the fans and other players. In 1943, the National Basketball League’s Cleveland franchise acquired African-American players, and by the same year blacks were playing in such cities as Youngstown, Rochester, and Tri-Cities. Eventually, in 1948 the Dayton team as well integrated. Notwithstanding their pioneering endeavors, both the Toledo and Studebakers disbanded. Nevertheless, the National Basketball League’s contribution to the integration of basketball continued all the way through the league’s final season in 1948-49. Nevertheless, it was not until the 1946-47 season that African-American players joined the league in appreciable numbers. The Rochester Royals, behind owner Les Harrison, acquired former Long Island University star Dolly King, the Tri-Cities Blackhawks signed the Harlem Renaissance star William â€Å"Pop† Gates, and Youngstown acquired the versatile Bill Farrow. Eventually, the Dayton Rens, coached by Gates, became the first all-African-American team to ever participate in a white dominated professional league. In 1965, Texas Western University with a team exclusively composed of African-American players, won the Division I NCAA Championship. It was the first time in an NCAA title game that an all-Black team played an all-white team (Miller, Wiggins, 2004, p. 244). Integration and Popularity of African-American in the NBA Although 80 percent of the current National Basketball Association players are African-American, yet in the first half of the 20th century professional basketball was contaminated by acts of racism, keeping numerous talented African-American off the courts. Originally, every team in the NBA was made up of entirely Caucasian players, but the 1950’s opened several significant changes for African-Americans in the world of basketball. Chuck Cooper became the first African-American to play in the National Basketball Association, and from 1950 to 1960, the professional league witnessed the arrivals of Elgin Baylor, Oscar Robertson, Wilt Chamberlain, and Bill Russell (Miller, Wiggins, 2004, p. 235). The aforesaid players started the ball rolling for Magic Johnson, Karl Malone, Julius Erving, Michael Jordan and now Kobe Bryant and Lebron James. In a period of 50 years, American professional basketball started out from 100 percent down to only 16 percent European-American players, and today, African-American dominated the rosters of the National Basketball Association. In part this trend of professional basketball rosters can be attributed to the ways in which African-American players bring to the game. In 1996, the National Basketball Association named its all time fifty greatest players, composing of 31 African-American and 18 European-American. In 2001, the Basketball Hall of Fame included 34 African-Americans out of the 113 inductees. To a number of fans and many in the media today, the appeal of basketball is tied up with admiring concept of African-American life. Conclusion Basketball is a team competition that has been changed by the presence of African-American, and is now becoming a significant lightning-rod of social, political and cultural change in the United States for over a century. Although the power and grace of Black athleticism has now achieved the high regard and approval of the world, yet for years it was forced to stay on the bench, as segregation in America were severely grounded on race. Like other areas of society, African-Americans’ struggle to be admitted into the world of professional basketball revealed the discriminatory policies and segregated practices of the time. The history of American basketball reveals a compelling chronicle regarding athletic competition in a nation struggling to live up to its principles of democracy and equality. The professional league was without doubt forward thinking and ahead of its time in the utilization and integration of African-American basketball players. Even so, African-American pioneering players have squarely fortified the impact brought by the National Basketball League. People may not appropriately recognize the effects of their undertaking today given that very little recognition has been attributed to the pioneering players of the National Basketball League. Accordingly, African-Americans have changed the National Basketball Association and the manner the game is played today. Collectively African-American players helped bring new confidence, excitement, and energy to professional basketball. The integration is, without doubt, an indicator of the social, political and cultural maturity in the United States. Speech Presentation During the 1950s, basketball had developed into a major sport, leading the way for the intensification of interest in the game. The game of basketball, unlike in baseball, hockey, and football, was an urban sport played by a diverse population on every level; nevertheless, African-American players were excluded. Universities and colleges, mainly in the South side of the United States, were prohibited to have a team sport composed of black and white players in view of the Jim Crow Laws. In 1942, the National Basketball League, a forerunner to the National Basketball Association, became the first major professional basketball league to integrate. The professional league was forward thinking and ahead of its time in the employment and integration of African-American basketball players. Unlike professional hockey, football, and baseball, basketball did not integrate a single black player, seeing that during the 1942-43 season, the National Basketball League integrated 10 African-American players. The effect of African-American players to the game, by virtue of their skill, was instantly felt by the fans and other players. Chuck Cooper became the first African-American to play in the National Basketball Association, and from 1950 to 1960, the professional league witnessed the arrivals of Elgin Baylor, Oscar Robertson, Wilt Chamberlain, and Bill Russell. The aforesaid players started the ball rolling for Magic Johnson, Karl Malone, Julius Erving, Michael Jordan and now Kobe Bryant and Lebron James. Although the power and grace of Black athleticism has now achieved the high regard and approval of the world, yet for years it was forced to stay on the bench. Like other areas of society, the African-Americans’ struggle to be admitted into the world of professional basketball revealed the discriminatory policies and segregated practices of the time. Without a doubt, the history of American basketball reveals a compelling chronicle concerning athletic competition in a nation struggling to live up to its principles of democracy and equality. References Miller, P. B. , Wiggins, D. (2004). Sport and the color line: black athletes and race relations in twentieth-century America. New York: Routledge. Parks, J. B. , Quarterman, J. , Thibault, L. (2007). Contemporary sport management. Human Kinetics.

Effect of Government Policies on Tesco

Effect of Government Policies on Tesco Introduction This report will identify and explain a range of current government policies which have a significant effect on Tesco. An analysis will also be carried out on the implications of these policies as well as the changes in them and an explanation on how Tesco may react to them. The findings of this report are below. Findings There are a range of different government policies which affect Tesco in many different ways. When the government introduces such policies, Tesco have to react to them to ensure they operate legally. Furthermore, if a policy changes Tesco also have to react. The government introduces such policies to help fulfil many of their aims which include; Economy growthFull employmentControlled inflation/deflation – the rate of inflation being 2%A healthy Balance of PaymentsCare of the environment – reduced CO2 emissions in line with the United Nations CompactA good welfare state so that everyone is provided forA sustainable energy policy Different policies the government has in place will be looked at below. Economic Policy Economic policy which will refer to the actions that the government will be taking in the economic field. This covers the systems in place for setting the levels of taxation, government budgets, the money supply and interest rates. Most factors of economic policy can be divided into fiscal policy which deals with the government actions which will be regarding taxation and spending into monetary policy which will be dealing with central banking action which will be regarding to the money supply and interest rates. The government does many different things to improve the economic environment in which businesses such as Tesco operate. These include policies to control inflation such as changing taxes and interest rates, to increase employment, to encourage new businesses by giving more money to help new businesses to start up such as Invest NI, giving help to businesses to grow their exports and to help improve the exchange rate. Corporation tax An increase in corporate income taxes has a direct effect on a business such as Tesco. A tax increase on company profits can hurt a business’s overall financial performance. Some corporations and small companies argue that some companies should have the ability to pay less in taxes, not more. The businesses that maintain a lower tax base will be able to boost the economy by investing more money to expand, resulting in more jobs as a result. When company tax rates increase, Tesco may respond by raising prices on goods and services. National Living Wage A country’s economic policy could also affect wages. When there are increases to a national minimum wage then this will benefit workers by allowing them to earn more money for the same work as a result. That’s usually good for the workers, but Tesco find this challenging because it increases costs. Labour costs are usually a company’s greatest expense. Some corporations will argue that they cannot compete against businesses which are located in other countries in the world offering a much lower minimum wage as a result. That can result in the business to transfer many job functions to foreign countries such as Germany as Tesco will be responding by sourcing products from countries such as China and sourcing their clothing stock from places such as India. Government spending More spending by the government can be a major help for some companies. For example, a business such as Tesco benefit when the government uses taxpayers money to spend billions on new roads, bridges and airports. This benefits Tesco as they have a wider access to different and possibly cheaper distribution channels to source their products and deliver products to consumers. This is why businesses such as Tesco spend time and effort trying to affect economic policy decisions. Usually, a government cannot increase the money spending in one area without taking money away from something else as a result. A government which has an economic policy which will be dictating more money to be spent on defence may have to reduce support for example such as building more hospitals. This action can result in less work for construction firms, which can force businesses which operate in that industry to reduce staff or freeze open positions as a result. This has implications for Tesco as more people are unemployed and so less people are buying their products so their sales and subsequent profits will decline. The government must ensure they give different policies equal attention as changing one will ultimately change another and this has implications for Tesco such as having to decrease their prices of their products and services so that people can afford to buy them. Health Care Spending Some economists believe that rapidly rising health care spending will then be lowering the GDP and overall employment, while raising the inflation. Tesco is affected by inflation in many ways. Inflation means that the costs for Tesco will increase. For example, they will have higher energy bills, higher transport costs, higher costs for raw materials and higher cost of services such as internet services and insurance. Due to these increases in costs, Tesco must react to them by either passing on these costs to consumers in the form of higher prices for products and services which may lead to a decrease in demand, or by absorbing the increase in costs and not passing them on to the consumer. This means that profits for Tesco will fall so they must find other ways of trying to reduce costs. As costs are rising, Tesco must react by reducing their costs of production or the price they pay for goods and services to suppliers to be able to compete with competitors such as ASDA and Sainsbur y’s and survive. Youth Unemployment Policies In the UK, around 40% of the unemployed are under 25. Tesco’s first response to a period of recession is to stop recruiting new staff rather than to lay off their existing, experienced and knowledge workforce. Only when Tesco is in a state of financial stress does it normally make people redundant. The young trying to move from education into the workforce are then most exposed to the disappearance of new vacancies. The government’s strategy to tackle the high levels of youth unemployment has been coherent but may be poorly delivered and lacking in scale. Noting that most youth unemployment occurs between leaving full-time education and finding work, the government has not only got to extend education and training participation as part of its economic policy, but also try to increase recruitment of the young into jobs through offering some work experience or apprenticeships if they are not making successful transitions quickly. This has implications for Tesco as they ma y have to take on less skilled individuals who the government have put into working schemes alongside Tesco. Tesco’s productivity may decrease as a result of poorly skilled staff and they may react by cutting out apprenticeship schemes within the company and put all prospective-workers through the application process like everyone else. Competition Policy The main aims of competition policy is to promote competition, which will make markets work better and contribute towards improved efficiency in competitiveness of UK businesses which operate in the European Union (EU). Competition policy aims to ensure; Safeguard and promote the interests of consumers through increased choice and lower price levelsEffective price competition between suppliersTechnological innovation which will be promoting dynamic efficiency in different markets Competition will then play a vital role in helping the companies to grow and win new customers. In addition, the Competition law exists in order to make sure companies will be competing on a level playing field. It will then prevent their customers (other businesses or consumers) from losing out. Competition Act 1989 This is government policy towards increasing competition in the market. It includes; Deregulation means opening up the market and allowing new entrants into it for example, airline industry, energy industry and mail industryRelaxing rules and regulations and administration in order to encourage new businesses to set up and compete with existing businesses for example, new airlines, new banks, new private schools, new private health clinics and new energy providers.Policy to eliminate anti-competitive practices and cartel agreements ensure that one or two businesses do not dominate a market and that competition is as fair as possible for example supermarkets such as Tesco, airline industry, energy industry, oil industry. Competition policy will therefore impact on an organisation such as Tesco directly and indirectly. Directly because it will control their ability to merge or take over other businesses without government intervention and their case may even be referred to Europe for approval. It will also impact Tesco indirectly because of this government intervention to encourage and promote competition; there will be more competition in the such industries and this will mean products and services which Tesco offer will be available at cheaper prices. Market Power Policies The government has policies in place to prevent and reduce the abuse of market power. If a particular company has more than 40% of market share then it will be considered to have market power. In addition, the OFT is much more likely to investigate companies which have a dominant market position. Abuse of market power can lead to market failure and this can be against the public interest therefore the government will be concerned to intervene and protect the interests of consumers. Evidence of abusing market power includes charging excessively high prices, using predatory pricing which involves cutting prices and selling below average cost in order to force competitors out of business and there are vertical restraints which involve the monopoly firm imposing prices or restrictions on its suppliers. The government has policies in place such as marketing power policies which promotes competition and prevents excess pricing. These policies impact on Tesco as they will be unable to abuse the market power which they have a lot of as they are the largest grocery supermarket in the UK. Tesco insists they ‘do not raise prices or otherwise worsen our retail offer where there is less local competition’. This shows that Tesco reacts to these policies by staying within their guidelines for example not increasing prices for a particular product or service because it cannot be bought anywhere else in that area. These types of policies are good for Tesco in that they control other businesses abusive power to charge inappropriate prices for goods and services which could drive Tesco out of business. However, it does mean that there are tight rules and regulations which Tesco must face in relation to Tesco so they must be very careful the prices they charge for goods and services and the quality of service they provide. Reductions in Import Controls This will be a reduction in import tariffs which is to encourage cheaper products from overseas. Increasing or eliminating import quotas will have the same effect as a result. Allowing new countries into the European Union single market will be increasing the contestability. This government policy has significant effects on Tesco. It means that Tesco have greater access to importing their goods cheaply from countries such as China and India. This means that their costs are decreased and allows them to make a greater profit. Allowing new countries into the European Union means that Tesco will have more competition so it makes a more competitive-market, however this makes it harder for Tesco to maintain the largest market share if new businesses are being allowed to enter the market from foreign countries. This policy will be good for Tesco as it means they can trade more easily and freely with other countries and can import cheaply. However, it does mean that other countries have a gr eater chance of coming in and taking over some of the markets which Tesco has been operating in. Anti-Competitive Behaviour This is the problem of ‘cheating’ or ‘finding loopholes’ which will include to getting round the regulations by moving into an adjacent market. For example, a large grocery retailer which is moving into the ‘convenience’ store market can be seen as a way of avoiding competition policy. A major criticism is that ‘single’ markets are inadequately defined. For example, in 2004 the Office of Fair Trading allowed Tesco to purchase Admin store (the owners of Cullen’s, Europa and Harts) because has been regarded as a ‘convenience stores’ to be a separate market from the grocery stores. This will give Tesco 6% of the convenience food market which also includes 26% of the grocery market. Tesco argued that the two markets are quite distinct, however critics have argued that the markets will be almost indistinguishable and also that Tesco shouldn’t have been allowed to enter the convenience food market as well. Anti- competitive policies ensure that mergers, takeovers and the exploration of new markets are all done fairly and within the law. This impacts Tesco as it restricts what they can and cannot do in terms of what different markets they explore. This may mean that Tesco’s profits are restricted also what they class a single market to be may be different to what the government class a single market to be. Having anti-competitive policies in place is good for Tesco as it gives them a framework of what they can and cannot do as well as the protection against other companies trying to take over them or put them out of business. These policies definitely protect Tesco, offer the business a sense of security and allow for a healthy competitive environment. Industrial Policy The industrial policy of a country is its official strategic effort to encourage the development and growth of part or all of the manufacturing sector as well as other sectors of the economy. Changes in the international economy will mean an increase in both competition and opportunities from the global markets. The government will want to enable UK companies to compete and grow. The UK government are developing an industrial strategy which will be about setting out a long-term, whole of government approach which is into how they support companies. This will then give confidence for investment and growth. As part of the strategy for industrial policy, the government aim to; support emerging technologiesdevelop strategic partnerships with industrywork with business to help develop skills that businesses will needpublish government contracts to provide confidence to business investmentimprove access to finance for businesses Industrial policy is government policy focusing on helping and developing different industries such as the construction industry, IT industry, film industry and tourism industry. This could give tax breaks to particular industries for example reduced corporation rates, reduced rates and lower VAT rates for tourism products. Industrial policy links very closely with economic policy. Corporation tax This is a government policy which the government could change at any time. A rise in corporation tax (which is taxation on business profits) has the same effect on a company such as Tesco as an increase in costs. If the government increase corporation tax, Tesco’s costs ultimately increase. They can react to this by passing on some of this tax to consumers in the form of higher prices for goods and services but it will also affect the bottom line. Energy and infrastructure Investing in infrastructure provides greater availability and access to skilled labour and intellectual property both in targeted growth industries as well as new and entrepreneurial industries. With labour costs being the highest costs of businesses, progressive improvements in the capability of the workforce and access to skilled workers are critical for innovation, service value, product quality, productivity, efficiency and operating costs. As a result of the government investing in infrastructure, Tesco ultimately can gain access to greater skilled staff which improves their productivity and overall sales. Improved infrastructure for industries such as the retail industry which Tesco lies within can also lead to improved energy efficiency for stores and this decreases costs for Tesco allowing them to increase profits too. Wages A country’s industrial policy could also affect wages. When there are increases to the national minimum wage then this will benefit workers by allowing them to earn more money for the same work. That’s usually good for the workers, but it can be challenging for companies for example like Tesco and impacts them because it increases costs. Labour costs are usually a company’s greatest expense. In addition, some corporations argue that they cannot compete against companies which are located in other countries around the world offering a much lower minimum wage. This can result in a business to transfer many job functions to foreign countries as a result. For example, Tesco reaction to changes in national living wages include sourcing products and services from other countries at cheaper prices so that they can reduce their costs to make up for the increased wages. Transport Policy Transport policy deals with government policy in relation to road, rail, air and sea transport and deals with issues such as access, congestion, the effect on the environment, vehicle tax and crime. This will include; Development of roads, rail links, sea ports and airportsPolicies to ensure safety and security on transportPolicies to reduce congestion on major arterial routes. For example, congestion tax, road tolls and tolls for parking your car on the streets Transport policy links closely with economic policy, environmental policy and regional policy and different areas within this policy have different impacts on Tesco. Transportation policies and projects often affect the employment, productivity and profits of specific industries and businesses, and communities in which they are located. For example, policies that improve transport options and discourage motor vehicle travel may reduce employment and profits in vehicle and fuel production industries, and therefore economic activity in areas where those industries are concentrated. Similarly, improving airport transit service may reduce taxi service demand. Advocates for the affected industries often lobby against such policies on grounds that jobs and economic activity will decline, but such impacts are generally economic transfers (one industry, business or area benefits at others expense). Transportation policies can also affect the competitiveness of local industries. Low transportation costs make locally produced goods less competitive compared with imports, harming local industries. This could mean that products which Tesco source locally are done away with as the company is impacted by these cheaper importation costs and source their products from further afield. For example, some vegetables are cheaper to grow in California and Florida than in Northern Ireland, so low shipping costs leads to more imported vegetables and less local farm production. Belfast Rapid Transport System BRT Belfast Rapid Transit (BRT) is an innovative and ambitious project that will create a new and dynamic public transport system for Belfast. BRT will offer a high quality service providing people with better access to jobs, hospitals, shops, schools, colleges, and entertainment. With a more efficient and effective transport system in Belfast, Tesco are impacted. This government project will allow customers and employees of Tesco easier access to stores to carry out their shopping. Deliveries will also be delivered more quickly to Tesco stores from warehouses. This impacts Tesco as they are able to extend the breadth of their customer base as customers can get to and from their stores much more quickly and effectively. If customers find it easy to get to Tesco stores they are much more likely to shop in those stores than one which is difficult to get to and the BRT allows customers to benefit from this. With changes to this transport system, Tesco are then able to maximise their sales m uch further and subsequently increase their profits too. The BRT project will impact Tesco as infrastructure is improved and so relationships with new suppliers who can avail of this new infrastructure can be established. This could mean that Tesco could source some of their products more cheaply and this will also impact company costs as they are reduced. Belfast Transport Hub The Belfast Hub will be a world class multi-modal transport interchange acting as a high quality gateway for Belfast and beyond. The new Hub creates an excellent first impression of Belfast as a confident and progressive capital city and will facilitate the areas regeneration as an attractive place to live, work and visit. The Hub will ensure the people of Northern Ireland have the right infrastructure in place in order to attract more people to use public transport and active travel modes as a result. Along with other key projects, this will then be enabling a transformation into the public transport where they are making a positive impact for everyone in Northern Ireland. Due to the result of the government investing  £150m in this new transport hub, businesses such as Tesco are impacted. Around eight million passengers a year will currently pass through the Europa bus centre and Victoria Street railway station, but this figure is expected to rise to thirteen million over the nex t fourteen years. This could significantly increase the number of customers who visit Tesco stores in the Belfast area and could drive their sales and subsequent profits, allowing them to increase their market share and grow the company as a whole. The Dublin Enterprise train is hoped to be a part of the hub which would even help Tesco to increase their customer base from the south of Ireland as well as the north. Congestion charges The Northern Powerhouse Investment Fund (NPIF) will provide an additional  £1.1 billion by 2021 in new funding to relieve congestion and will then be delivering much needed upgrades on local roads and public transport networks. Congestion charges could be introduced for motorists which are travelling into Belfast in the future, this is according to a document which was prepared by the city council. Its submission to the assemblys finance department was pointed to the success of the recent congestion charging which is in London and the road pricing in Durham. The council has said to the public that the local authorities should benefit from any revenue. However, Larne and Lisburn councils told the department that they believe this idea is unacceptable to the public as a result. The Department of Finance is reviewing possible changes to rates. In the city of London, all revenue raised by congestion charging will be re-invested back into the citys transport system as a result. A Transp ort for London report has just found out that congestion levels in the zone are to be on an average 26% lower than in 2002 before the scheme had been implemented. It will now be costing  £10 to bring your car into central London on the day, or  £8 if you pay ahead. If these congestion charges were implemented into the Belfast area, it may turn people off going to Belfast and shopping in Belfast. This impacts on Tesco as many of their customers like to travel to stores via their own cars for their own convenience. This may deter their customers from visiting Tesco stores in Belfast and this will have a significantly negative impact on the company’s sales and overall revenue that it gathers each day. Tesco may react to this government policy by using incentives for customers to visit such stores. For example, offers or money-off coupons in stores where customers would have paid congestion charges to get to. Social Policy Social policy means the policies that are introduced for welfare and social protection. It relates to the provision of social services and welfare state. This includes issues such as; EmploymentCommunity careHealthCrimeHousingSocial disadvantage. Within these issues lie topics such as minimum wage, social security payments, pensions, fuel costs and redundancy payments. In general terms, it looks at the idea of social welfare, and its relationship to politics and society as a result. There are many different government policies within social policy which have an impact on businesses such as Tesco. Housing benefit The government may offer the people of the UK help with all or part of their rent. There is no set amount of housing benefit and what a person gets will depend on whether they rent privately or from a council. There may also be increased housing benefits for older and vulnerable people. Help to buy policy – The government also have a policy in place which helps support peoples aspirations to own their own home. The Help to buy scheme enables people to buy a home priced up to  £600,000 with a deposit of as little as 5%. Through this help via social policy, even businesses such as Tesco are impacted. If the government are financially assisting people to pay for their accommodation and housing, those people have a higher disposable income to spend in places such as Tesco. If there were no social policies in place with regards to housing, people of the UK would struggle a lot more with regards to making payments and would have a lot less money to spend around them. Tesco are imp acted here as people simply don’t have the money to spend with them and so they lose a lot of customers. Due to this, they may have to lower prices for goods and services which will ultimately damage the company’s overall profits. Reducing/Increasing welfare benefits In the UK, unemployment benefits are also known as welfare benefits. This is where the government give a proportion of money to those who are unemployed and not working. Reducing and increasing welfare benefits have very different impacts on Tesco. Higher welfare benefits help to reduce inequality and reduce relative poverty in the UK. Higher benefits will give those on low income a better living standard and help contribute to a more cohesive society. This impacts Tesco as people who are unemployed and receive a higher benefit will have a higher disposable income to spend with them. For example, a person who receives  £60 per week may not have as much money to spend in Tesco as a person who receives a welfare benefit of  £150 per week. Tesco may be happy that people receive a higher welfare benefit as they will increase their sales. However, it also has drawbacks for Tesco too. Increasing welfare benefits creates a disincentive to work. If welfare benefits are too generous, people may have a strong incentive to avoid work or work fewer hours. This may impact Tesco’s employees who feel that if they do not work, they may actually receive more money from welfare benefits than they do from their wages with Tesco. This could ultimately lead to employees within Tesco becoming a lot less productive as they have a smaller incentive to work for money and may actually leave the company completely. This impacts Tesco as if this occurs; they have to spend time and money on recruiting and training new staff to the same level as previous staff. Furthermore, higher welfare payments increase the burden on the government requiring higher taxes and / or higher borrowing. Both taxes and borrowing place economic costs on society and this can affect Tesco’s taxes as well as their customer’s ability to afford their products if they are being taxed more heavily! Youth unemployment policies such as the Youth Contract The government have introduced policies to tackle an aspect of social policy which is youth unemployment. The Youth Contract will be aiming to expand the opportunities for young unemployed people for them to find relevant work experience which can be, hands-on training and they will be able to start the process of building a positive employment record after they have left school or college. It will need to be seen in the wider context of other government policies for example increasing the school leaving age to 17 and also requiring that all school leavers will have a suitable qualification in Maths and English so that they will have a prosperous career. The main aim of the Youth Contract is to assist as many young people as possible into sustained employment where they will have a meaningful career. This policy has a number of features; Apprenticeship Grant for Employers of 16-24 year olds. This government subsidy will pay  £1,500 to employers who have less than 50 employees that take on young apprentices.Support for 16 and 17 year olds: Payments of  £2,200 are made to providers who take on 16 and 17 year olds who are not in employment, education or training and who have low or no qualifications, and also those from other disadvantaged backgrounds.Work experience: These are placements which are available for 16-24 year olds, through Jobcentre Plus who have been claiming Job Seekers Allowance for at least 13 weeks. The Youth Contract policy has impacts on Tesco too. Tesco have the opportunity to recruit and be paid for it. Although it will cost to train staff, they may retain some of the governments money which they are given and use it for other operations of the business such as improving customer car parking, customer service or facilities in-store. Tesco will also be impacted as they can be seen as having a better corporate image if they are supporting 16 and 17 year old people who are not in education, employment or training or who come from disadvantaged backgrounds. Education and Training Policy This is the government policy in relation to education and training such as STEM subjects, apprenticeship schemes, internship, university fees and the school leaving age. The overall aims of education and training policy are to improve education and training and in turn society and increase economic growth. There are different government policies within this policy which have an impact on businesses such as Tesco. Skills focused training The investment by the government in skills focused training, for example through education and training in schools to prepare people for future aspects of the work place are essential in future innovation. Tesco require an adequate knowledge pool of skilled employees to develop a wide range of innovations. Through the government having such a policy in place, people become more educated and this has implications for Tesco. It will result in a more skilled-workforce being available for recruitment and once recruited, allows for more skilled workers within the company. This can improve the profitability of Tesco and impacts them by increasing their profits and market share. Increasing university fees There was a 17% fall in the number of first year undergraduates at UK universities in the first year due to the higher tuition fees that has been imposed. This doesn’t look good for the economy as it would seem that fewer people would graduate in specialised industries. However, it may have benefitted Tesco as more people looked for full time employment instead of going to university. This impacted Tesco as they had a greater number of people to choose from when recruiting. They also had the option of more skilled people when recruiting as they may have had a 17% increase in people to choose from. However, the increase in university fees may have negative implications for Tesco. If people graduate with greater debt with their education fees, they may spend less so that they are able to pay off their debt. These cuts in their spending may be with Tesco as they attempt to save money and this ultimately damages Tesco sales which they will have to look for ways to improve again. Pathways to success Pathways to Success is the Northern Ireland Government’s over- arching strategy is in order to prevent exclusion and promote participation amongst young people who are not in education, employment or training, or at risk of becoming so. As the government do this, Tesco are impacted. There are implications such as Tesco introducing schemes to include young people in their workforce such as a scheme for 16-18 year olds who are not in work and take them on and train them up with necessary skills to succeed in a job role with Tesco. Pathways to success may also have implications on Tesco such as the company being able to recruit more specialised people for more specialised roles. For example, if a person has been in education and training through Pathways to Success which improve their marketing techniques, then Tesco may take on this person to help them with their marketing team. This impacts Tesco as they have a better work force who can market their products and services to an even greater level and subsequently, sales and profits could be increased further. Tesco may react to this policy by taking on employees via schemes for people who come from disadvantaged backgrounds and offering them a job within the company. This would also contribute to decreasing unemployment figures. Environmental Policy Environmental policy is to do with caring for the environment. Every government now has to achieve CO2 targets after the agreement. This means that every government has to introduce policies to achieve these targets. Environmental issues will affect companies which include industrial waste, sustainable development of raw materials and water and air emissions. These are issues which affect companies due to laws which require companies to change equipment and procedures to meet imposed standards, which as a result cost businesses a lot of money. Many companies will undertake stricter changes in an effort to preserve the environment and do what is right†. These companies will then pay for the protective and proactive environmental measures and will then also attempt to recoup the expenses through consumer good will or the added consumer base which is gained from an environmentally friendly policy. This policy links closely with transport and industrial policy. The Kyoto Protocol 1997 was the first international treaty to set legally binding emissions – reduction targets for developed countries that ratified it. This would lead to a greenhouse gas emissions reduction of 5.2% below 997 levels between the years 2008 and 2012. Government environmental policy is led by the Department for Energy and Climate Change (DEEC). In 2008, the UK government greatly enhanced its environmental policy by changing the law through the Climate Change Act. This act includes the following targets; A UK wide climate change risk assessment must be completed every five yearsPublic authorities and some companies must report on what they are doing to reduce climate riskA climate strategy has to be publishedA programme must be put in place to reduce climate change risks Some policies the government have introduced under environmental policy will be looked at below. Renewable energy Through the government introducing policy in relation to renewable energy, they pay energy users who will be investing in a small-scale, low-carbon electricity generation systems for the electricity they generate and use and provide incentives for businesses to install renewable heating instead of fossil fuels. This has implications for Tesco and Tesco respond to changes in this policy. Tesco have a long term goal to become a zero carbon retailer by 2050 and they have zero-carbon stores to meet this goal. Their special stores use a mix of environmentally-friendly design, materials and technologies to ensure that all energy-consuming equipment, no matter how big or small, is as efficient as possible – whether that be the refrigeration system or the hand drier in the toilets. This shows how Tesco have responded to changes in the government’s renewable energy policy and the impact of such a policy on Tesco. Energy wise schemes The government has introduced many different energy wise schemes over the past number of years. The government once funded the Green Deal Finance Company, which was set up to lend money to Green Deal providers. This – although not directly linked to Tesco – did actually have implications for the company and they reacted in different ways. The heating and cooling system in Tesco’s Ramsey zero-carbon store uses 66% less energy than a typical store of a similar size. They are designed to help Tesco reduce their carbon footprint. Introducing air conditioning to all stores reduces the need for extra heating or cooling and this also helps Tesco save energy by preventing heated air escaping outside their stores. Other reactions by Tesco to energy wise schemes introduced by the government are the introduction of sophisticated lighting control systems. These can automatically dim individual lights when the natural daylight increases and can be linked to timers and motion sensors to ensure that lights are not left on when they are not needed. This shows the lengths Tesco are going to in ensuring they stay ahead of the energy schemes which the government introduce and as they attempt to be the first zero-carbon retailer. Waste legislation and regulations The EU Waste Framework Directive will be now providing the legislative framework for the collection, transport, recovery and disposal of waste, and will also be including   a common definition of waste. The directive will now be requiring all member states to take the necessary measures in order to ensure that the waste is recovered or disposed of without endangering human health or to be even causing harm to the environment and this will also include permitting, registration and inspection requirements. With such legislation in place, implications are in place for Tesco. Tesco have responded to this legislation by agreeing a deal to donate all the unsold food from its stores to charity. The supermarket giant has also announced plans for them to work with 5,000 local charities across the UK in an initiative with the aim to eradicate all its food waste by the end of 2017. Tesco have also reacted to this policy by drawing up a plan that by 2018, the store will have a 0% food waste fi gure and this shows how Tesco quickly and effectively react to implications placed on them by government policy. Fiscal Policy Fiscal policy deals with taxation and government spending. This will cover things such as; cutbacks in government spending and changes in the way government spending is administeredchanges in taxation or example changes in income tax rates, VAT rates, Corporation Tax rates, airport duty and customs duties on goods coming into the countrythe introduction of new taxes such as sugar tax, fat tax and tax on bigger supermarkets Under fiscal policy, the government has many different measures in place and proposed measures to ensure it is followed effectively. Government spending cutbacks Government spending in a range of different areas is extremely important for things such as the economy and for business. Some government spending for example, on roads, infrastructure and transport will have an important effect on the long run productivity of the economy. If these areas of spending are cut, then the UK’s productive capacity may suffer in the long term. Cutting spending in roads and transport may mean these areas become insufficient for use and can restrict people travelling to and from places. Tesco customers may not be able to use roads which they deem too dangerous due to insufficient repair and this impact Tesco as they lose customers and subsequent sales. It may also mean that Tesco cannot import products from other countries if transport isn’t appropriate to do so which may mean they have to source their goods and services more locally and at a higher cost. However, capital spending is often the easiest place in order to make spending cuts; this i s because people don’t lose out in the short term. If you reduce pensions, then people will notice straight away. If you reduce capital investment, then this action will affect people 10 or 20 years in the future. If the government make spending cuts to pensions for example, people may immediately try to save money for themselves in the future. This attempt as saving money for people may be reducing their spending on their weekly groceries and so ultimately Tesco suffer with a decrease in their sales. The government must ensure they give different policies equal attention as changing one will ultimately change another and this has implications for Tesco such as having to decrease their prices of their products and services so that people can afford to buy them. Increase in taxation The largest source of revenue for the government is the income tax and this will then be levied against interest, dividends, capital gains and income. Therefore, the highest earners will then be paying high taxes. However, if there is an increase in tax then this will affect consumer spending in different ways including which will then be affecting the aggregate demand. Increase in tax reduces consumer spending. When the taxes have been placed on specific products, then the consumers will tend to look for substitutes that are available at cheap prices. This has implications for Tesco as they may have to reduce the prices of their products to compete with other competitors such as ASDA and LIDL. This also impacts Tesco as a smaller price being charged means profits aren’t as high as the firm would wish for them to be. It is imperative to note that consumer spending is often two thirds of GDP. Therefore, the increasing taxes will then be reducing the disposable income. This will then mean that the consumers will only spend the money they have on essentials and no additional amounts. With the tax increases, the consumer spending reduces and this will then cause fluctuations in the economy because of the attitudes of clients or consumers towards the state of economy. This also has implications for Tesco who may have to compete in an economy which is struggling and so they will struggle too with imports and daily running of their stores. Increased rates for bigger supermarkets The UKs largest supermarkets are being hit with increasingly disproportionate hikes in business rates that will spell more pain for them in times of recovering from an economic recession. Tesco, Sainsbury’s, ASDA and Morrison’s face an additional bill of more than  £110,000 per superstore in 2015-16 compared with 2010-11. This occurs at a time when small businesses have seen their bills reduced. This increase of rates for only the bigger supermarkets is seen as unfair and has many implications for Tesco. Changes in this policy impact Tesco as increasing their rates is an increase to their expenses and takes away capital which can be used to expand and which eats up the company’s profits. It may also impact Tesco as they have to increase their price of goods and services to cope with these increased business rates and so consumers stop shopping with them and go to other smaller stores who don’t have to increase their prices to cope with an increase in bus iness rates. Regional Policy Regional Policy targets all regions and cities in the European Union in order to support job creation, business competitiveness, economic growth, sustainable development, and improve citizens’ quality of life. Regional policies are policies in relation to a particular region of the UK for example, Northern Ireland, Scotland, England and Wales. In 1994 the government divided the UK into a number of different regions and developed policies according to the needs of those particular regions. Regional policy could include: Delegating powers to different regions. For example, Northern Ireland and England having different law and policingGiving more support to regions affected by floodingDesignating regions as Enterprise Zones Enterprise Zones are areas regarded as being a disadvantaged area and are targeted by the government for growth and development. The government provides such areas with advantages in order to attract business to the area. Some advantages provided could include a speedier planning system, superfast broadband, business rates relief and enhanced capital allowances. This would then help inward investment into the disadvantaged area. Stormont would like all of Northern Ireland to be designated as an enterprise zone with mini enterprise zones in struggling towns. This would help NI to reduce its dependence on government funding and develop more private sector jobs. Corporation tax Since 2010, the government has eased the regulatory burden onto companies and has also reduced the corporation tax rate from 28% to 20% with onshore tax receipts increasing by over 20% over the same period. To continue providing the certainty those businesses will need to make their long-term investments, then the government will be recommitting to the business tax road map which includes the principles that it sets out. This includes cutting the rate of corporation tax to 17% by 2020 which also includes reducing the burden of business rates by  £6.7 billion over the next 5 years. This has positive implications for Tesco as their tax is reduced and so they have the opportunity to use such capital on daily operations or even to expand, which otherwise would have been paid in tax. This also impacts Tesco as they are able to maximise their profits even further as an expense has been significantly reduced. This may enable the company to invest in other areas as seen in the past such as insurance and clothing. Another implication of this reduction in corporation tax is a better opportunity for Tesco to import goods from abroad as they are paying less tax on the money they are making and so can afford to import in greater volumes for cheaper prices! Introduction of National Living Wage Increases to a national minimum wage will benefit workers by allowing them to earn more money for the same work as a result. This is usually great for the workers, though Tesco may find this challenging due to increased costs. Labour costs are usually a company’s greatest expense. There are some corporations who argue that they can’t compete against other companies who are located in foreign countries which are offering a much lower minimum wage to their workers. This can result in a business to transfer many job functions to foreign countries such as Tesco responding by sourcing products from countries such as China and sourcing their clothing stock from places such as India. Increased and more in-depth training Introducing and increasing more in-depth training to different job areas has helped shape a better economy and allows for better business practice. Thanks to EU funding – around  £21 million was made available under the PEACE II Programme – farmers in Northern Ireland are being trained up to make todays technology work for them in their day-to-day administrative tasks. The overwhelming majority now acknowledge that the training they received has helped them to adopt better business practices. 80% of the participants stated that the training contributed to the use of better business practices. This training was given to 4,213 farmers and their family members. As the government introduce more in-depth training, businesses such as Tesco can benefit. Tesco may be impacted from this case for example. Farmers (suppliers of Tesco) can now log communicate effectively through the use of ICT with Tesco and this can make ordering products much more simpler for Tesco. It also has implications for Tesco such as being cheaper to communicate with farmers via email instead of having to go to farms and go through huge orders. Changes to this government policy would impact on Tesco as the farmers wouldn’t be as heavily equipped with the skills necessary to carry out quick and simple business practice with Tesco and so more expensive methods may have to be explored by both Tesco and the farmer. Conclusion This report successfully identifies a range of current government policies and their impacts on Tesco as an organisation. The implications of these policies and changes in them have also been analysed and ways in which Tesco may react to them has been looked at. It’s clear that Tesco must always be aware of current government policies and any changes in them so that they can make necessary changes such as to their documentation and protocol to the way in which they carry out business which will ensure that it is positive for them and for the UK economy too. Bibliography http://www.telegraph.co.uk/business/2016/11/23/autumn-statement-2016-telegraphs- business-panel-gives-verdict/ (accessed on 10/12/2017) http://economicsonline.co.uk/Business_economics/Evaluation_of_competition_policy.html   (accessed on 10/12/2017) http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/technology-38304254 (accessed on 10/12/2017) http://ec.europa.eu/education/policy/strategic-framework/indicators-benchmarks_en (accessed on 10/12/2017) http://www.hm-treasury.gov.uk/d/national_infrastructure_plan_051212.pdf (accessed on 10/12/2017) http://www.niassembly.gov.uk/Documents/RaISe/Publications/2013/enterprise_trade_inve stment/3613.pdf (accessed on 10/12/2017) http://www.telegraph.co.uk/business/2016/11/23/autumn-statement-2016-telegraphs- business-panel-gives-verdict/ (accessed on 10/12/2017) http://www.investopedia.com/articles/economics/09/education-training-advantages.asp (accessed on 10/12/2017) http://ec.europa.eu/regional_policy/en/projects/united-kingdom/training-opens-new- doors-for-farmers (accessed on 10/12/2017) http://ec.europa.eu/regional_policy/EN/atlas/programmes/2014-2020/united- kingdom/2014uk16rfop003 (accessed on 10/12/2017)

Factors Effecting Cardiac Output Physical Education Essay

Factors Effecting Cardiac Output Physical Education Essay Inotropy can have positive or negative effect on the heart, especially the ventricles. There are few factors that can influence inotropy; this can either be neuronal, hormonal. The neuronal influence is predominately from the autonomic nerves, either the parasympathetic or the sympathetic nerves and these have both negative and positive effect on inotropy. However, other influences come from some drugs which have positive or negative effect on inotropy. This will consequently affect the cardio output by changing the state of for example ESV, preload, stroke volume and heart rate. All of these factors are related and depend on each other. Section A: The autonomic nerves are divided into two, parasympathetic and sympathetic nerves. The sympathetic nerves cause a positive inotropy. It does this by releasing norpinephrine by the postganlionic fibers and the secretion of epinephrine from adrenal medulla. These hormones, norpinephrine and epinephrine, causes the cardiac muscle cell metabolism. Hence, the contraction and the force of contraction in the cardiac muscle increase. This increases because of special types of receptors called adrenergic receptors found on the plasma membrane of the cardiac muscle cells. There are two types; one is called the alpha receptors and the other type is called the beta receptors. These receptors bind to and recognise both norepinephrine and epinephrine. Because of the cardiac muscle cells contraction increases this will cause the ventricles to contract harder. This will decrease the end systolic volume, because the amount of blood ejected from the ventricles increases. The other types of nerves that influence the inotropy are called parasympathetic nerves. The parasympathetic stimulation from the vagus causes the release of acetylcholine (ACh), which is a neurotransmitter. The ACh binds to two types of receptors; they are known as the muscarinic and nicotinic cholinergic receptors. There are different types of mascarinic receptors; and the M2 muscarinic receptors are specific for the heart. These receptors work by maintaining the heart to stay at its constant state. When the ACh is released it binds to M2 mascurinic receptors. Therefore, after the reactions occur between the M2 mascurinic receptors and the ACh, the effect it has on the heart is that it reduces the heart rate; it also reduces the action potential produced by the SA node and the AV node. However, it also affects the heartà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s ability to contract. Both the arterial and ventricular muscle cells are innervated by the sympathetic and parasympathetic nerves. However, in the ventricular muscle cells, the parasympathetic nerves have more compact than the sympathetic nerves. For these reasons the parasympathetic stimulation has a negative effect on the inotropy. Beside the parasympathetic and sympathetic stimulations having influence on the inotropic state; there are few hormones, described above, and drugs that can also influence the inotropic state of the heart. As mentioned above, epinephrine, which is released from the adrenal gland, and norepinephrine, which is released from the sympathetic nerves, increases the heart rate. This has a positive effect on the inotropic state of the heart. However, there are few drugs that have the opposite effect of the norepinephrine and epinephrine; these drugs are known as antagonist, because they block the action of the hormones. Some examples of such drugs are propanolol and digoxin. Propranolol works by blocking the beta adrenergic receptors that binds with epinephrine. This means that epinephrine cannot longer bind to these receptors, so therefore its effects are no longer seen and blocked. This is why propranolol and drugs similar to it are called beta-blockers. The actions seen by these drugs on the heart is that it slows down the heart rate. When the ventricles contract with great deal of force, the ventricles have to overcome some sort of tension; this tension is known as afterload and comes from the aorta pressure. Therefore, if the afterload is increased, this will mean the ventricular muscle cells will contract for longer period. Hence, the greater the end systolic volume will be; this is because the blood ejected is less and this will reduce the stroke volume, which means cardiac output will decrease as well. This mechanism only happens when the inotropy is increased and this can be done by hormonal or anatomic stimulation influence. On the other hand, a reduced inotropic sate, in this case the afterload is increased as well, will have the opposite effect on the end systolic volume. Section B: The preload is directly proportional to the end diastolic volume; therefore if there is an increase in the preload, there is an increase in the end diastolic volume. Basically what preload does is that it affects the cardiac muscle cellà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s ability of creating tension. So this means during systole, during the contraction of the ventricular muscle cells, the force produced increases and is forceful. Therefore increasing inotropy, by hormones such as epinephrine or stimulation from the autonomic nervous system, will increase in the force of contraction of the ventricles. Another way the inotropy can be increased depends on the amount of blood that is returned to the heart, which is known as the venous return. This can for example be caused by excise; this will increase the venous return and which will increase the end diastolic volume. Hence the increase of end diastolic volume will cause the increase of both stroke volume and cardiac output. What the venous return does is that it stretches the ventricular muscle cells because of the more blood. So this means the sacromere length will increase so does the tension. This results in the contraction of the ventricular muscle cells with greater force and the ejection of more blood. Thus, an increase in the preload will cause an increase in end diastolic volume; so therefore stroke volume is increased and cardiac output. This mechanism is known as the Frank-Starling law; this law basically states that the more the heart is stretched, the harder the heart contracts to eject more blood. When the ventricles contract with great deal of force, the ventricles have to overcome some sort of tension; this tension is known as afterload and comes from the aorta pressure. Therefore, if the afterload is increased, this will mean the ventricular muscle cells will contract for longer period. Hence, the greater the end systolic volume will be; this is because the blood ejected is less and this will reduce the stroke volume, which means cardiac output will decrease as well. This mechanism only happens when the inotropy is increased and this can be done by hormonal or anatomic stimulation influence. On the other hand, a reduced inotropic sate, in this case the afterload is increased as well, will have the opposite effect on the end systolic volume. The contractility of the heart can, especially the ventricles, can have a great deal on the pressure and the development tension on the ventricles. This has an effect on the ejection fraction, because the inotropy changes the amount of blood ejected from the ventricles. There are two types of factors that increase the inotropic state. The types are either said to have positive inotropic or negative inotropic. In order for the cardiac muscles cells to contract, the sarcoplasmic reticulum has to release Ca2+ .What causes the contraction of the cardiac cells are the entry of Ca2+ into the cells. Therefore what the positive inotropic does is that it increases the amount of Ca2+ that enter into the cardiac muscle cells. This increases the stroke volume and lowers the ESV which in return increases the cardiac output. An example of this is the sympathetic stimulation on the heart. However, the negative inotropic has the opposite effect. This can for example be the parasympathetic stimulation; basically this will block the entry of the Ca2+ into the cardiac muscle cells. Thus the ejection fraction is reduced which leads to an increase on the ESV; hence the stroke volume decrease and cardiac output as well. The heart rate is defined as the number of times the heart beats in one minutes. In a normal person at rest beats as 70 beats per minutes. The body controls the heart rate different ways that might increase or decrease heart rate. Activities from the parasympathetic nerves decreases the heart rate, basically what happens is that stimulations sent from the parasympathetic nerves to the heart decreases heart rate; whereas the sympathetic nerves have the opposite effect. The effect seen from this is that the pacemaker potential decreases due to a decrease in the F-type sodium ions. This means the threshold is reached more slowly than it is normally, thus heart rate decreases and consequently the cardiac out decreases as well. Heart rate can also be affected by hormonal influence. One primarily example is the release of epinephrine which is released from adrenal medulla. This hormone basically acts on the receptors found on beta-adrenergic receptors in the SA node. These receptors normally accept norepinephrine, which is released from the neurons. The effect of these hormones is that it increases the heart rate, hence the cardiac output.

Classification Essay - Three Types of Cheaters -- Classification Essay

Plagiarism - Three Types of Cheaters "Fools make researches and wise men exploit them." Merriam-Webster's dictionary defines the word plagiarize as to pass off as one's own the ideas or words of another. Every student knows that plagiarism is dishonest and wrong. Why do so many students do it? Students themselves may not believe that they are plagiarizing. Many students plagiarize because of the diverse types of plagiarism which are often unknown to students. The three major types of plagiarism are shameless, haphazard and self-plagiarism. Self-plagiarism is a relatively new concept that has not gained much attention in the student world. Shameless plagiarists are the ones who go through their entire academic career passing off other people's work as their own. In a majority of cases, these people do not get caught. Recently, a first year student at the San Diego State University admitted to her friends that she was turning in her uncle's essays for every assignment. She felt that she was not doing harm to anyone because her uncle would specifically write the essays for her. All this student had to do was retype the essays with her name on the top of the paper. According to this student, she is not plagiarizing because her uncle has given his expressed permission by consenting to the use of his essays. She has almost completed her first year at the school without even one teacher suspecting academic dishonesty. Although her friends and family members are appalled at her and her uncle's lack of scruples, no one has alerted the school or her teachers. Up north at Chico State University, a young man confessed to his friends that he sends his rough-draft essays to his mother for "proof-reading." His mother essentially woul... ...arism or else students run the risk of being found guilty of plagiarism. Students may think they know what plagiarism is but a lot more are guilty of at least one of the three forms plagiarism. References A Modern Utopia by HG Wells taken from The Economist (US), Feb. 3, 2001 p6 The Spinster and the Prophet. Merriam-Webster Dictionary p 530. Michael Spears (http://voyager.dvc.edu/~bmckinney/www.ehhs.cmich.edu/~mspears/plagiarism.html) New York Times Upfront, Jan 1, 2001, v133 i9 p10 "Truth or Consequences." Personal Interview with San Diego State student 4/2/01 Personal Interview with mother of Chico State student 4/3/01 Personal Interview with Carondelet student 4/5/01 The Christian Science Monitor March 6, 2001 p17 "Your work, or the Web's?" US News & World Report, Nov. 22, 1999 v 127 i20 p 63 "The great term-paper buying caper."

Huck Finn :: essays papers

Huck Finn The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn is a well acclaimed book, written by Mark Twain. It was written from 1876-1883, but the story itself is supposed to have taken place some forty to fifty years earlier, back in the era of slavery. The setting for this book is very similar to the place where Twain grew up. He was raised in Hannibal, Missouri, but changed the name to St. Petersburg for the story. This town was situated right along the Mississippi river which plays a very significant role in the tale. Each character in the novel exhibits a certain personality. Personalities of which Twain encountered while being a river boat pilot for four years. The narrator is actually Huck Finn himself. Chapter one introduces Huck Finn and the reader gets to know what he is like. At fist glance he may appear to be only an out of control teenager, but there he is in fact a very dynamic character, just wait until things begin to unfold. Huck yearns to be free from all authority. His guardian, Widow Douglas, is constantly nagging him to be â€Å"sivilized,† but this seems to go one ear and out the other. He enjoys smoking, cursing, hunting and fishing. But she would rather that he learn to be polite and go to school. The reader also sees in this chapter that Huck is superstitious. This occurs when he accidentally kills a spider, which supposedly brings bad luck. The chapter ends when he hears something in the tree outside his bedroom.... Chapter two introduces Huck’s best friend, Tom Sawyer. They both sneak out together, almost getting caught by Jim, the Widower’s slave. But they weasel their way out of it by pulling a trick on him. Which provides Jim with another bizarre story to tell, he always stretches the truth. Both Tom Sawyer and Huck share the same love for adventure and have great imaginations. For instance, they begin to create a plan to start a band of robbers. Tom pulls his knowledge of robbers from books he has read, so the plan ends up quite extreme. He wants all of the robbers to actually kill the people they rob, just because he read it in a book. Huck is definitely more realistic than his friend and backs out of it. During chapter three we find that Huck has been learning how to read and write. And he also begins to see signs of his Pap’s return. His pap is the town drunk, who just wanders around looking

Human resource management of McDonald Essay

MCDONALD’S CORPORATION: McDonald’s Corporation is the world’s largest chain of hamburger fast food restaurants which serves approximately 68 million customers on daily around 119 different countries and haves 30,000 restaurants worldwide. McDonald’s headquarter is in Oak Brook, Illinois, USA and company was started as a barbecue restaurant in 1940 by Richard and Maurice McDonald. In 1948, owners of the company reorganized the business to a hamburger stand and thereafter in 1955 businessman Ray Kroc joined the company as the first franchise agent. Ray Kroc purchased the chain from the McDonald brother and made it grow worldwide. (McDonald Corporation) The corporation itself either operates a McDonald’s restaurant or by a franchisee. McDonald’s Corporation revenues are obtained from the rent, fees paid by the franchisees, royalties and the sales from the restaurants operated by McDonald’s Corporation. McDonald’s Corporation had annual revenues of $28.15 billion in the year 2013 whereas their profits were $5.6 billion. (Yahoo finance) McDonald’s product line includes selling hamburgers, cheeseburgers, french fries, chicken items, breakfast items, desserts, milkshakes and soft drinks. Due to changing consumer taste and to survive in this competitive and ever changing environment McDonald’s Corporation has added salads, wraps, fish, fruit and smoothies to its menu list. (McDonald Corporation) PURPOSE OF MCDONALD’S CORPORATION: The main purpose of McDonald’s Corporation is to serve fast food and to do everything that can be done to respect the  customer and to have customer trust in their brand. WHY I CHOSE MCDONALD’S CORPORATION: Following are the reasons why I choose McDonald’s Corporation 1. McDonald’s Corporation is one the world largest and leading fast food chain 2. McDonald’s Corporation employs 1.8 billion people worldwide and they have one of the best HR practices 3. McDonald sells almost 75 hamburgers every second which attracts any HRM student to study their HR practices BUSINESS MODEL OF MCDONALD’S CORPORATION: McDonald earns its revenues from investing in properties, as a franchiser of a restaurant and as an operator of restaurants. Almost 80% of the company restaurants are operated by franchisees, which are bound to pay 4% of their revenue to McDonald, as well as the rent. In most of the cases, McDonald owns both the building and land which results in a stable flow of income making the franchisees bear most part of the risks. The remaining 15% of restaurants are owned and directly operated by McDonald. Considering the business model of other fast-food chains the business model of McDonald is different. Other than franchisee fee and the marketing fees that are calculated as sales, McDonald do sometimes collect rents that are also considered as sales. Other than revenues generated from the franchise agreement, McDonald may also own or they can lease the property where McDonald’s franchises are located. According to the policy of McDonald, the business does not involve itself in making any direct sale of food or any other material to its franchisees but it organizes the food and materials required for the franchises through an approved third approved logistic operators. McDonald’s is also involved in identifying the locations, developing new products and quality. HUMAN RESOURCE MANAGEMENT: Human resource management is an approach by which company’s most valued assets (people) are managed. For any company to achieve success its human resource has to individually and collectively contribute and this can only be achieved through proper management. Proper management of company human resource not only help the company to achieve its objective, but they achieve it with greater efficiency. Human Resource Management helps the organization to achieve its desired goals and success  by the help of its people. Human Resource Management, therefore, is utilized in the creation of decision on the plans of the organization. These plans are linked with employee relationships, recruitment, training and development, performance management and rewards for employees. Therefore, human resource strategies developed are to be in line with organization business plan to help the business to be successful. MCDONALD’S HUMAN RESOURCE MANAGEMENT: McDonald’s Corporation in order to achieve success and competitive advantage developed it human resource management strategy focused on four areas A) STRATEGIC HUMAN RESOURCES MANAGEMENT: McDonald’s human resource strategies and practices were synchronized to the company business strategy and thereafter the HR department helped to realized the business plan or strategy by forming it into company HR practices in relation of personal development and hiring. B) MANAGEMENT TRANSFORMATION AND CHANGE: One of the way HR function of McDonald helped organization to achieve competitive advantage is by identifying the changes required and thereafter implementing it. This strategy served as a catalyst for company successful growth. C) EMPLOYEE MANAGEMENT: HR department tried to understand the problem which employees face daily and what are their needs and thereafter making an effort that their problems are solved and their needs were met. D) MANAGEMENT OF ORGANIZATION ADMINISTRATION: It was made sure by HR department that the process of employees hiring, training, evaluating, rewarding and promotion were designed in such a way that they were in line with the strategies of McDonald. In order to align these four focus area following things were done by McDonald 1. PERSONNEL STRUCTURE: As the business model of McDonald shows that it generates most of it revenues from franchising, therefore, there are three categories in their structure which are corporate staff, restaurant workers and franchisees. The control staff which either operates from company headquarter or regional offices is responsible for controlling and managing the franchises to make sure that standards of McDonald are maintained and the products are delivered at time. Restaurant worker constitutes the biggest part of company structure. They are controlled through supervisors who report to assistant manager. Most of this staff works on part time basis and are paid on an hourly basis. Finally, the  franchises that are managed by their owners but according to the standards set by McDonalds. 2. PERFORMANCE MANAGEMENT: In order to make sure that productivity is always high the HR department has put a process in order to know which staff is not working according to the desired expectations and what solution is to be implemented to bring that staff up to the required expectations. This is done by performance review of employee that can be done anytime or the interim performance review which is carried out after each six months. Based on these performances reviews it is decided which staff will get promoted which staff requires training so his performance can be increased. This way of management not only serves as motivation for employees, but it also creates a competitive environment among the staff which in turn helps the productivity of employees to increase. 3. MOTIVATION & REWARD: Since most of McDonald staff have low wages and are paid on an hourly basis which results in large staff turnover, therefore, company has to make sure that their staff is motivated and they keep them motivated by awarding staff with different reward schemes and other perquisites. This not only increases their motivation to work for McDonald but also helps them to increase their productivity 4. TRAINING: McDonald spends almost $10 million each year and trains approximately 55,000 employees to make sure that make sure that their employees have valuable skills that are needed. At first all new employees are given introduction about the company and thereafter staff trainers train them properly to make sure they develop all required necessary skills to work in the organization. It is made sure thereafter that these employees know how to use the latest foodservice equipment and they understand all McDonald’s operational procedures. To make training much easier McDonald has published step-by-step manuals, video tapes and quality reference guides which explain each and every detail of the job process. Employees are also taught communication, interpersonal and organizational skills. This enables their employees to do their job at the best possible way and, therefore, they serve the customer with highest standards making McDonald’s customer  service as one of the best in fast food supply companies. 5. MANAGEMENT DEVELOPMENT: McDonald has designed McDonald Development Program (MDP) to develop leadership skills within employees so they can be successful leaders. Various courses of this programme are held for employees of different level of management and for franchisees. CONCLUSION: McDonalds now a day is one the fastest growing corporation and this is due to the reason of proper management of their human resources. This clearly shows that the corporation is on the right track and they have been able to keep the motivation levels of their employees high. This has been done by proper reward schemes for the employees based of their performances. Proper training is provided to the newcomer making it much easier for new employee to pick up and to get comfortable with the job quickly. However, if McDonald’s Corporation continuously strives to further improve its HRM strategies then McDonald can continue to grow at much more faster pace. Hence it can be concluded the HRM strategies of McDonald’s Corporation is in line with their business model and growth strategies and this can be verified from their success up to this date. REFERENCES Ingmar, B., Carl, F., & Hyeon, J., (2007). Institutional theory and MNC subsidiary HRM practices: evidence from a three-country study. _Journal of International Business Studies,38,_430-436 Paula, C., (2014). Many moving parts: Factors influencing the effectiveness of HRM practices designed to improve knowledge transfer within MNCs. _Journal of International Business Studies,45,_ 63-72 Seeking Alpha (2014), McDonald’s: Business Model, Valuation And Minimum Wage Legislation, ​Retrieved March 22, 2014, from http://seekingalpha.com/article/2052223-mcdonalds-business-model-valuation-and-minimum-wage-legislation UK essays (2003), Evaluating Human Resource Strategies Implemented by McDonalds, Retrieved March 22, 2014, from http://www.ukessays.com/essays/business/evaluating-human-resource-strategies-implemented-by-mcdonalds-business-essay.php McDonalds (2014), Corporate Info, Retrieved March 22, 2014, from, http://www.mcdonalds.com/us/en/our_story/Corporate_Info.html Yahoo finance (March 2014), Income Statement​, Retrieved March 22, 2014, from, http://finance.yahoo.com/q/is?s=MCD+Income+Statement&annual

Cone Health Organizational Chart and Structure Essay

The classical theory consists of organizational design that subdivides work and specifies tasks. The classical theory allows the different departments to run with efficiency by giving staff members different task to perform. The classical theory is composed of four elements: division and specialization of labor, chain of command, organizational structure, and span of command. Division and specialization of labor reduces the workload of the employee that will increase proficiency throughout the organization. The chain of command is authority, power, and responsibility delegated from high levels of authority to the lower levels. Organizational structures are how the departments are arranged and how command is maintained and how communication is achieved through a formal system. The span of control is how many employees a manager can effectively manage. (Sullivan, 2012).†¨ The structure of this organization provides for an environment for client centered care by offering services of acute care with different levels of care such as emergency services, med-surgical units, intermediate care unit, intensive care and labor and delivery. Each division is managed by a specific leader, such as the manager, who reports to the chief of nursing. The managers are more in contact with staff and have direct communication with staff members as well as patients in the hospital. This personal level of communication allows for managers effectively to communicate the importance of the mission of the hospital, which is to exceed expectations and provide quality health care to all at all times. With this mission in mind, it can lead to a close relationship with client care. The use of information systems is the way to communicate throughout the hospital to staff members. There are two charting systems used in the organization and an assignment board system in each department. The first one is Emergency Data Management, which is used in the emergency department, and the second is the Meditech, used in the other departments in the hospital. All information systems are visible to all nursing staff but cannot be edited interdepartmentally. Verbal communication method can be in the form of informing peers concerning the level of care already delivered to a patient and expecting others to follow through. We are expected to formally inform each other of what need to be done concerning our patient via the Emergency Data Management and Meditech. The GroupWise E-mail system is used by staff for internal communication and exchange purposes, and it can be accessed both in the hospital and at home via the internal intranet. Information from different departments comes to staff via e-mail, and all are encouraged to check their email daily. Staff members are also provided with a physical mailbox, with their names on it where everyone is provided with departmental information. Decision-making regarding policy change may be done by departmental basis, but must be approved by the chief nursing executive. For example, the standard of work was change in the triage process, but before management implemented the change, it had to be approved by the chief nurse executive, and he or she will decide based on the Nurse Practice Act. Restructuring of nurse leadership is currently in progress to allow nurses to have more input on leadership and its decision making pattern in organizations. The chief nurse executive reports to the regional vice-president of nursing, whereas all directors of each nursing department reports to the chief nurse executive. The organizational structure has its strength and weakness. One weakness that exists in this structure is the lack of communication between departments. Strength in this structure is that the chief-nursing executive is not left to make all decisions on his or her own because they have the help of managers and directors of the different departments. These informal structures of the organization is constantly at test as staff do frequently communicate with each other about what is expected in the plan of care to achieve an efficient client centered care. The charge nurse writing on the assignment board the activity of plan of care into the system as per each department to allocate patients to nurses and the staff nurse reports uses formal communication in the day-to-day operations of the organization the activity of plan of care into the system as per each department. For example there are formal meetings daily with the house supervisor, the managers, and leaders of the department to discuss bed availability in the hospital. Issues of power and control exist between the different floors and the emergency department. There is always competition for staffing resources, and if there is a float pool nurse on call, the charge nurses have to show who has a greater need for the float pool nurse leading to charge nurses to compete for the nurse.†¨ St. Luke’s Hospital is located in a lower middle-class neighborhood and caters to all ages. The hospital caters socially to the infants and pediatric patients. It has recently expanded the acute-stroke and short-stay unit also known as an observation unit. There are patients of different ethnicities while there are many patients who do not speak English; the use of the language phone has come into use quite often. The language phone removes language barriers between the patient and the health care provider and allows the patient to receive proper care. A lot of patients in the community have stated they come to our hospital because they have read in magazines that we are a great hospital.†¨ Generational differences that influence organizational culture are on the rise in the work environment. There are a great number of new younger nurses coming out of nursing schools, which means new ideas. The older nurses sometimes have problems accepting new nurses because they seem to want to change things. Some of the older nurses feel they are being pushed out of the nursing field by the new nurses and feel they are being forced to retire.†¨ In this paper there has been a discussion of organizational structure and functions, creation of client-centered care, information systems, power issues within the organization as well as decision making abilities. There have been discussions about social and cultural influences and how they integrate into delivery of care in the organization, and finally how generational differences influence organizational culture of the workplace as it shapes the future. It will be appropriate to expect more input into decision making culture via a developed formal and informal system to increase the input from the first responder group-the staff nurses and certified nursing assistants. References Sullivan, E. J. (2012). Effective leadership and management in nursing (8th ed.). Boston, MA: Pearson.